概要信息：

ȶ Verbal and 
Nonverbal 
Communication
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CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
Verbal and nonverbal communication have increasingly taken place in a digital 
environment. the use of emojis has become more and more popular on social media, 
such as Facebook. today, you will look at emojis, memes, and GiFs and try to deduce if 
they are worth being a part of your social media marketing efforts as well as teach you 
a thing or two that will help you use these graphics without embarrassing yourself. We 
have seen a significant rise in their usage for marketing purposes only in the last couple 
of years. the main reason for that is actually quite simple; brands and businesses noticed 
that emojis are a great way to connect and engage with millennials. additionally, these 
graphics are a form of visual content, and social media craves visual content (Supan, 
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have altered the way you communicate both verbally and nonverbally in the social and 
professional environments.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
What is verbal communication? Verbal communication encompasses both our 
words and our verbal fillers (e.g., um, like). Verbal messages are created through 
language. Effective communication involves accurate interpretations of others’ 
verbal messages as meaning is cocreated. Otherwise, the meanings of the words 
you communicate will not be understood. As a professional, you must make effec-
tive use of your language skills and improve your abilities to interpret other peo-
ple’s messages. Robinson and Robinson (1982) concluded that if speakers are to be 
consistently efficient at conveying verbally their intended meanings to listeners, 
they must understand that intended meanings may not be fully conveyed by a 
message and that many factors can lead to a listener’s failure to understand what 
a speaker means.
The use of emojis has become more and more popular on social media, such as Facebook.
Chapter outline
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Forming Relationships With Verbal and 
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KEYS to Excellence in Verbal and Nonverbal 
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Chapter objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
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3. Appraise your verbal and nonverbal 
communication skills
4. Discuss examples of how verbal and 
nonverbal communication are related
5. Apply the KEYS approach to conduct 
yourself with professional excellence 
through verbal and nonverbal 
communication in the workplace
ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
The symbols communicators use are 
abstract, vague, and sometimes arbitrary. 
Because symbols can make things a bit off 
or fuzzy, we have to interpret the meaning. 
So we construct meanings as we inter-
act with other people and by processing 
the information in our own heads (Duck, 
1994; Keyton & Beck, 2010). This process 
of meaning construction is also symbolic, 
because we use words to think about what 
things mean (Keyton & Beck, 2010; Wood, 
2009). In a series of growth models, words 
had a stronger effect on engagement skills 
whereas early gesture use predicted later 
development of social-emotional concepts. 
Therefore, even in early development, 
symbols serve as both communication tools and mental tools to construct under-
standing of the social-emotional world (Vallotton & Ayoub, 2009).
When you really think about it, it is an absolute miracle that we can communicate 
with one another at all. Really, think about it for a moment. We have selected a bunch 
of arbitrary symbols we call words and gestures to represent “things.” These can be 
things we have never seen or never can see, such as feelings. Nevertheless, we use those 
symbols to express our thoughts, desires, and emotions, and somehow communica-
tion does occur. Because of the need for interpretation of meaning, being an audience- 
centered communicator is a must for professional excellence. It is obvious that com-
munication affects how we are perceived by our audience(s). Still today, some people 
believe that communication works like a pipeline (i.e., if you send a message, the target 
will no doubt be reached); if you said something and another person heard it, then effec-
tive communication occurred. We should know from experience that this simply is not 
the way it works. With little effort, you could give a dozen examples of times when you 
said something and the listener completely misunderstood the message.
Let’s look at an example from the retail industry to illustrate the point. A customer 
comes into a grocery store and asks for green beans. Trying to provide good customer 
service, a manager explains, “The green beans are on Aisle 8.” Twenty minutes later, 
the customer is still wandering around the store frustrated. Why? Because canned 
green beans are on Aisle 8, fresh green beans are on Aisle 1, frozen green beans are on 
Aisle 14, and the prepared green beans she wanted are in the deli across from Aisle 10. 
“Green beans” is an arbitrary symbol with various interpretations of meaning.
Verbal communication concerns communication rules—shared understanding of 
what communication means and what constitutes appropriate communication given 
the context. Two kinds of rules guide communication (Pearce, Cronen, & Conklin, 1979). 
Regulative rules describe when, how, where, and with whom to talk about certain 
things. These same rules also dictate appropriateness. For instance, it might be appro-
priate for your boss to call you at home after hours, but would it be appropriate for you to 
do the same if you had a concern about your travel schedule? What’s appropriate for the 
person with power or control may not be appropriate for those serving in a subordinate 
role. To demonstrate professional and workplace excellence, you must be able to mon-
itor your own appropriateness when communicating. In addition, constitutive rules 
define what communication means by prompting us to count certain kinds of commu-
nication. In other words, we learn what counts as paying attention (e.g., eye contact) and 
showing affection (e.g., kissing, hugging), as well as what counts as being inappropriate 
(e.g., interrupting conversations, rolling one’s eyes; Duck, 2007; Wood, 2009).
Verbal communication 
in collaborative work 
groups is essential in 
both face-to-face and 
mediated contexts.
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CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
Being aware of yourself can make the difference between losing your job and 
nurturing a promising career. We see examples of this in the news headlines and 
front-page stories of our favorite magazines and newspapers. In early 2012, radio 
talk show host and political commentator Rush Limbaugh caused controversy after 
he made inflammatory remarks about Georgetown University law student Sandra 
Fluke. Despite the fact that his career is based on sharing his opinions, the words 
he chose on that fateful day resulted in public and sponsor backlash. What factors 
led to such an outcry? If he had spoken out in disagreement without name-calling, 
would the reaction have been the same? What are the ethical considerations in this 
situation? What might you take from this story when considering your verbal com-
munication in the workplace? Undoubtedly, the words we say are extremely import-
ant. Yet, of equal importance is what we communicate without words.
STEP BACK AND REFLECT
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wrong in this professional situation.
Connie works in the accounting department of a manufacturing company. She often 
complains to her family and friends that her coworkers do not like her and treat 
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she notices that people walk away when she approaches. She considers herself a 
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believes her coworkers may resent her because she is able to work well with all 
her clients and is skilled in accounts reconciliations, resulting in company savings 
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proudly in meetings, providing guidance to her teammates about work issues. She 
enjoys sharing her success stories and has no apprehension about asking questions 
in meetings. She has been with the company longer than everyone, including her 
boss, and she often reminds him of the history of why things are done a certain way. 
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recognizes her value as an employee. However, when she receives her performance 
review, she is shocked by her supervisor’s comments:
“Feedback has been shared with Connie several times on her engagement in team 
meetings. Connie constantly repeats points discussed and closed in meetings, 
which is a distraction for several analysts. it is evident that Connie is having a 
hard time following along in meetings, as points and topics are constantly being 
repeated for her to understand. Feedback has been shared with Connie on staying 
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comments, and tone of voice during meetings seem aggressive and indicate that 
she disagrees with her manager. this has been shared with Connie and she has 
been asked to improve.”
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 What went wrong?
 How could Connie use the KeYS approach to improve her communication interaction?
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ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
What is nonverbal communication? Put simply, nonverbal communication (also 
referred to as body language) includes all those ways we communicate without 
words. A more technical definition for nonverbal communication is “communica-
tion other than written or spoken language that creates meaning for someone” (Ivy 
& Wahl, 2014, p. 5).
The literature provides considerable support for the effectiveness of nonverbal 
communication as a tool for conveying thoughts, attitudes, perceptions, and mean-
ing. Research indicates that about 55% of interpersonal messages are conveyed non-
verbally (Lavan, 2002). This seems logical, because most human beings are visually 
dominant and live in a society dominated by visual images and are thus more inclined 
to believe the evidence of the eyes than that of the other senses (Sampson, 1995). In 
fact, a widely held viewpoint among scholars is that communication is optimized 
when verbal and nonverbal elements operate in an integrated fashion, producing a 
coordinated and synchronized effect (Jones & LeBaron, 2002; Laplante & Ambady, 
2003). R. Harrison and Crouch (1975) suggested that verbal communication is only 
the tip of the communication iceberg and that “nonverbal communication precedes 
and perhaps structures all subsequent communication” (p. 77).
Nonverbal symbols are everywhere, even though we tend to use verbal forms 
for our most formal communications. In fact, the nonverbal system accounts for 
65% to 93% of the total meaning of communication (Birdwhistell, 1970; Mehrabian, 
1981). Nolan (1975) concluded that the many theories of language evolution had one 
important argument in common: “Nonverbal behavior precedes verbal behavior in 
the evolution of communication” (p. 101).
Taking the Spotlight
As you read this passage and answer the questions, 
consider how the way you communicate has an 
ethical dimension.
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are partners assigned to work on a major advertising 
campaign. Sheila is a seasoned account manager, 
while david is a recent college graduate hired as 
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with Sheila via email. Sheila never responds to the 
email. in a meeting with management to propose 
their ideas, however, Sheila takes the lead on 
presenting; as a result of her nonverbal and verbal 
communication, management concludes that 
she was responsible for the work. in fact, when 
commended on the ideas, she accepts the praise 
and makes no reference to david. david, by contrast, 
is afraid to say anything, and his bosses have no 
clue that the majority of the ideas were his.
Questions to Consider
 What are the ethical considerations and 
dilemmas in this scenario?
 What did Sheila communicate or not 
communicate during her presentation, and 
how?
 How could david use his verbal and nonverbal 
skills in the future to keep this situation from 
happening?
 What do you believe should be the appropriate, 
professional response in this situation?
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situations such as this?
6. do you believe the outcome of this situation 
would have changed if david had talked directly 
to Sheila instead of using email?
ETHICAL CONNECTION
CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
What kinds of behavior are included 
in the term nonverbal communication? 
Your “walk, stance, posture, and footsteps 
are a form of nonverbal communication. 
What you wear and how you look, move, 
and gesture, as well as the facial and eye 
expressions you make all count as non-
verbal communication” (Ivy & Wahl, 
2014, p. 6). What are the purposes of non-
verbal communication? Why is nonver-
bal communication important?
Argyle (1988) suggested that non-
verbal behavior serves four purposes. 
The first function is to express emotion. 
Consider a moment when you may have 
had a conflict with a friend or family 
member. When that person asked you what was wrong, you probably responded, 
“Nothing,” but you could not control your facial expressions, which indicated oth-
erwise. Displaying appropriate emotion is vital to professional excellence. One 
should show passion and drive but also demonstrate resilience and be able to tri-
umph over day-to-day disappointments in the workplace. Could you imagine a 
classroom environment where students displayed extreme emotion each time they 
received a grade that was lower than expected? How do you think your productiv-
ity would be affected?
The second function of nonverbal communication is to convey interpersonal 
attitudes. Being skilled in observing and interpreting the nonverbal behavior 
of others will give you an edge over other professionals. For example, a young 
woman competing for a promotion with another employee noticed that her 
coworker would always approach their boss with issues first thing in the morning. 
The coworker would then complain that he had to repeat himself and that their 
supervisor seemed to forget what he had been told. The young woman observed 
that her supervisor always seemed rushed and distracted until he had his coffee 
and had checked and responded to pressing emails. She made sure always to 
approach him when he seemed more relaxed and focused. When he offered her 
the promotion, her supervisor said he appreciated her timing and how she always 
kept him in the loop.
The third function is to present one’s personality, such as character, disposition, 
or temperament. Think about the different work environments you frequent during 
your week—the bank, the school library, restaurants, and so on. What are the char-
acter traits of employees at each of these establishments? Do you expect that the 
librarian will be as outgoing as a server in a crowded bar? Make a list of the top five 
jobs you have considered, and write down some of the personality traits that might 
be expected. How might your verbal and nonverbal communication vary between 
the positions?
Finally, the fourth purpose of nonverbal communication is to accompany verbal 
communication. Ekman (1965) specified the important ways that verbal and non-
verbal behaviors interrelate during human communication. Nonverbal communi-
cation can simply repeat what is said verbally. It can also conflict with what is being 
said. Verbal and nonverbal communication can be incongruous, or in disagreement. 
Think of a time at home, work, or school when you experienced someone saying 
he or she was being truthful yet could not look you in the eye. Did you assume 
that person was being deceptive? Or think of a time when a loved one said, with a 
This photo illustrates 
a few examples 
of nonverbal 
communication—all the 
ways we communicate 
without words. To 
achieve professional 
excellence, you 
should become a 
critical observer of 
nonverbal cues in any 
environment.
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ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
raised voice and tear-filled eyes, that nothing was bothering him or her. When ver-
bal communication carries one message and body language a conflicting message, 
the result is likely to be communication failure (Jones & LeBaron, 2002; Laplante & 
Ambady, 2003).
Ekman (1965) also found that nonverbal communication can complement or 
accent a specific part of the verbal message. This can include placing emphasis 
on certain words by slowing down your speech or changing your tone. Nonverbal 
behavior can also be a substitute for a word or phrase within a verbal message. How 
many of you have ever nodded instead of saying yes when your professor asked you 
if you understood the curriculum? Or perhaps you have looked away to avoid eye 
contact instead of saying that you do not want to be called on to answer the question 
being asked.
Nonverbal communication may also accent (amplify) or moderate (tone down) 
parts of the verbal message. As well, nonverbal communication is distinct in its abil-
ity to regulate verbal behaviors by coordinating our verbal and nonverbal behavior 
in the production of our messages or those of our communication partner (Ekman, 
1965). Imagine the last time you had a conversation with a roommate or friend. How 
did you determine whose turn it was to speak? Did you use eye contact to end the 
conversation or to let the other person know you were listening? What hand gestures 
or sounds might you have made to show your partner that you wanted to speak?
A Day With the Chief
As you evaluate the passage below, consider whether 
this behavior is appropriate for this professional context.
mark is a top-performing salesperson at a 
pharmaceutical supply company. as a reward for his 
performance, he is treated to a trip to the corporate 
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West” because of her short and sometimes abrasive 
demeanor. mark’s coworkers share “horror stories” 
of their encounters with her, stating that she rarely 
makes eye contact, never smiles, and dislikes being 
approached unless she initiates the conversation. 
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about what he and ms. mills might talk about. He 
prepares by thinking about how he can share his sales 
strategies and techniques. on the day of the meeting, 
he waits patiently for ms. mills’s assistant to call him 
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shocked to see a petite woman behind the large desk 
smiling back at him with kind eyes. He approaches, 
shakes her hand, and waits for her permission to sit. 
ms. mills is nothing like the horrible person they made 
her out to be. ms. mills asks mark several thoughtful 
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his professional goals. mark feels more and more 
comfortable as she leans forward to listen intently 
to what he is saying. mark loosens his tie, crosses his 
legs, and begins sharing stories of how he feels his 
immediate supervisor has dropped the ball on more 
than one occasion and that the team would be better if 
more money were allocated to incentives and bonuses. 
mark immediately sees ms. mills’s eyes begin to squint 
and her brow furrow. She stands up abruptly and 
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assistant will show him out.
Questions to Consider
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Why or why not?
 What communication factors led to the change in 
the Ceo’s disposition?
 How could the KeYS process help mark improve his 
communication skills?
Evaluate the Professional Context
CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
Recall the definition of human commu-
nication as presented earlier in the text: the 
process of understanding our experiences 
and the experiences of others through the 
use of verbal and nonverbal messages. In 
fact, in an effort to categorize the mean-
ing associated with nonverbal behavior, 
Mehrabian (1981) identified three dimen-
sions that indicate how we use nonverbal 
communication to make sense of things in 
both personal and professional contexts:
x Immediacy: We react to things by 
evaluating them as positive or neg-
ative, good or bad.
x Status: We perceive behaviors that 
indicate various aspects of status to us—for example, rich or poor, strong or 
weak, superior or subordinate.
x Responsiveness: We perceive activity as being active or passive. This signals 
the intensity of our feelings about a person or subject.
Knapp and Hall (2009) proposed that these three dimensions are basic 
responses to our environment and are reflected in the way we assign meaning to 
both verbal and nonverbal behavior.
Now that we have explored the value and importance of nonverbal communi-
cation and how we assign meaning, it is crucial that we examine the components of 
nonverbal communication to understand it on a deeper level. Although we focus on 
these nonverbal communication codes in Western culture, remember that percep-
tions or reactions to nonverbal communication can vary in other cultures.
CODES OF NONVERBAL  
COMMUNICATION
The primary categories or codes of nonverbal communication include vocal expres-
sion; space, environment, and territory; physical appearance; body movement, gestures, 
and posture; facial and eye expressions; and touch (see Table 2.1; Ivy & Wahl, 2014).
Vocal Expression
Vocalics, sometimes referred to as paralanguage, refers to how people use their 
voices to communicate and express themselves (Foley & Gentile, 2010; Ivy & Wahl, 
2014). Vocalic cues include tone (quality) of voice, volume, articulation, pitch (high-
ness or lowness), rate of speech, and use of silence. The voice reveals our emotions, 
our thoughts, and the relationships we have with others. A growing body of evidence 
from multidisciplinary research in acoustics, engineering, linguistics, phonetics, and 
psychology suggests that an authoritative, expressive voice can make a big difference 
in one’s professional career. Scientific studies show that someone with authority char-
acteristically speaks low, slow, and with vocal intonation (Louët, 2012). Vocalics pro-
vide information about our self-confidence and knowledge and influence how we are 
perceived by others (Hinkle, 2001). Think about the direct impact that tone of voice 
can have in a professional setting. What does your voice say about you to others?
Remember that our 
cultural backgrounds 
can determine how 
physically close we get 
to others and how close 
we let others get to us.
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TABLE 2.1
Nonverbal Communication Codes: Consider the Professional Context
NONVERBAL CODE CONSIDER THE PROFESSIONAL CONTEXT
Kinesics (body movement, 
gestures, and posture)
How do you think gestures and body movement impact professional contexts?
Facial/eye behavior Can you think of some examples of professional face and eye behavior? How can face and 
eye behavior lead to negative perceptions?
Vocalics (paralanguage) What vocal qualities do you perceive as professional? Unprofessional?
Space/territory How can space and territorial violations impact business and professional contexts?
Touch Can you think of positive ways to use touch in professional contexts? In contrast, can you 
think of some negative uses of touch?
Environment What are the qualities of a professional environment?
Physical appearance In what ways does physical appearance impact business and professional communication?
Space
The impact of space on communication is 
called proxemics, or how people create and 
use space and distance, as well as how they 
behave to protect and defend that space 
(Foley & Gentile, 2010; Hall, 1959, 1966; Ivy 
& Wahl, 2014). Violations of territory and 
our personal space can be detrimental in 
business and professional settings.
Have you ever been on a crowded ele-
vator and been uncomfortable because it 
seemed as though people were invading 
your personal space? When you go to the 
library, how many of you place your back-
packs on the table or chair next to you to 
claim your space? What would happen if 
someone sat down in that chair anyway? 
Violations can be alarming, possibly even 
threatening. Our relationships with oth-
ers, power and status, and our cultural 
backgrounds determine how physically 
close we get to others and how close we let 
others get to us (Burgoon & Jones, 1976).
What preferences do you have related 
to space and distance? Edward T. Hall (1963) identified four zones of space in mid-
dle-class U.S. culture. The first is the intimate zone (0 to 18 inches). This is usually 
reserved for our significant others, family members, and closest friends. It is rare 
that a stranger can enter this space without making us feel violated. These inter-
actions mostly occur in private and signify a high level of connection, trust, and 
affection. The personal zone (18 inches to about 4 feet) is reserved for personal rela-
tionships with casual acquaintances and friends. The social zone (4 to 12 feet) is the 
This photo 
demonstrates how 
people create and use 
space and distance. 
What might happen if 
someone picked up the 
computer and sat down 
in the seat next to her?
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CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
distance at which we usually talk to strangers or conduct business. If you went to 
your professor’s office to discuss a grade, for example, you would most likely remain 
at a distance of 4 to 12 feet. The public zone (more than 12 feet) refers to the distance 
typical of large, formal, public events. In large lecture classrooms, campaign rallies, 
or public speeches, the distance between speaker and audience is usually more than 
12 feet. Understanding these spatial zones is important to your everyday nonverbal 
communication competency.
Environment
The constructed or natural surroundings that influence your communicative deci-
sions, attitude, and mood are termed the environment (Foley & Gentile, 2010; Ivy 
& Wahl, 2014). People are influenced by environmental factors such as architec-
ture, design, doors, windows, color, lighting, smell, seating arrangements, tempera-
ture, and cleanliness (P. Harris & Sachau, 2005; Jackson, 2005). Take a moment 
to think about what preferences would be related to your work environment. How 
does the environment (e.g., temperature, lighting, color, furniture) impact your 
communication?
Consider other things in the environment that can serve as nonverbal cues 
about who you are. These environmental factors you create and control are what 
serve as nonverbal messages to others who enter the space. As one scholar put it, 
“People cannot be understood outside of their environmental context” (Peterson, 
1992, p. 154). The environments we create for ourselves often speak volumes about 
those relationships we consider most important (Lohmann, Arriaga, & Goodfriend, 
2003). For instance, negative emotions and aggressive behavior of employees are 
two noticeable reasons for increased organizational costs (e.g., poor productivity, 
high staff turnover, low organizational commitment; Alarcon, 2011; Banks, Whelpley, 
Oh, & Shin, 2012).
The way we perceive our environment and the environments of others is an 
important factor in how we respond. Overall, we perceive the environment in six 
distinct ways (Knapp & Hall, 2006). The first is formality, which is an understanding 
people have of environment that relates to 
how comfortably they can behave, in light 
of their expectations. Sometimes it is more 
about the atmosphere of a certain place 
than the place itself. The second way we 
can perceive the environment is warmth. 
This means that the environment gives 
off a certain sense of warmth, comfort, or 
a welcoming context based on our past 
or current experience. Think of a favorite 
smell from your childhood, for example. 
Smells in an environment contribute to our 
perception of warmth.
Privacy is another way the environ-
ment can be perceived. Do you prefer a 
crowded and noisy restaurant or a peaceful 
and quiet one? Do you choose a seat in the back of a movie theater or in the middle 
next to many other moviegoers? Another perception we have is familiarity, which 
means that we tend to react cautiously when we meet new people or are confronted 
with an unfamiliar environment. Not knowing where we are and what to expect 
makes us feel less comfortable. We like knowing what to expect and how to behave 
in the environment.
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ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
Nonverbal Communication
As you read the index below and answer the 
questions, think about how this knowledge can help 
you be a better communicator.
Nonverbal Immediacy Scale—Observer 
Report
this measure will allow you to assess your own 
nonverbal immediacy behaviors.
Directions: the following statements describe the 
ways some people behave while talking with or 
to others. Please indicate in the space at the left 
of each item the degree to which you believe the 
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or description]. Please use the following 5-point scale:
  never   rarely   occasionally   often;  
5   very often.
  i use my hands and arms to gesture while 
talking to people.
  i touch others on the shoulder or arm while 
talking to them.
  i use a monotone or dull voice while talking 
to people.
  i look over or away from others while talking 
to them.
 5.  i move away from others when they touch 
me while we are talking.
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people.
  i frown while talking to people.
  i avoid eye contact while talking to people.
  i have a tense body position while talking to 
people.
  i sit close or stand close to people while 
talking with them.
  my voice is monotonous or dull when i talk 
to people.
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talk to people.
  i gesture when i talk to people.
  i am animated when i talk to people.
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to people.
  i move closer to people when i talk to them.
  i look directly at people while talking to them.
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  i have a lot of vocal variety when i talk to 
people.
  i avoid gesturing while i am talking to people.
  i lean toward people when i talk to them.
  i maintain eye contact with people when i 
talk to them.
  i try not to sit or stand close to people when 
i talk with them.
  i lean away from people when i talk to them.
  i smile when i talk to people.
  i avoid touching people when i talk to them.
Scoring for nonverbal immediacy Scale—observer 
report:
XITStart with a score of 78. Add the scores from 
the following items:
1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, and 25.
XITAdd the scores from the following items:
3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 20, 23, 24, and 26.
Total score  XITminusXIT
SOURCE: Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Johnson, A. E. (2003). 
Development of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (NIS): Measures 
of self- and other-perceived nonverbal immediacy. Communication 
Quarterly, 51, 502–515.
How did you score? What surprised you about your 
score? You can also try the measure on others. Simply 
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professors to determine whether their nonverbal 
immediacy might play some role in the degree to 
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use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors? did you learn 
more in one class? What class did you enjoy more?
KNOW YOURSELF
CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
Another perception of environment is that of constraint. Think about your liv-
ing situation. Do you like sharing a room or home with another person? Whenever 
we feel that our personal space is being invaded, we feel constrained. Most of our 
perceptions of constraint are shaped by the amount of privacy and space available 
to us. The final perception of environment is distance. Our perceptions of distance 
in an environment pertain to physical arrangements. We like to know how far away 
the closest door is or how many people can fit into an elevator. We create distance 
by avoiding eye contact or taking a longer route to avoid saying hello to a person we 
find annoying. Review the tips focused on establishing an effective workspace in 
Tools for Professional Excellence 2.1.
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employees.
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of your culture and brand.
x Consider what you want your workspace to say about the culture of your 
company, which can help foster a sense of belonging in employees.
x think carefully about what furnishings and décor items are used in the 
workspace.
x don’t be afraid of color: a workspace that is all white or gray can have negative 
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blue or red can help keep employees productive and motivated.
include an area for 
meaningful play.
x incorporate a play area to help employees break free from the monotony of 
email and phone calls.
x While something as simple as a couch or two will do, don’t be afraid to get 
creative and incorporate games, such as ping-pong, into the play area.
x “Play means connection”: Play areas can help employees build bonds with one 
another and fosters communication and success.
allow employees to design 
their own workspace.
x let employees have a say in the design process, especially when it comes to 
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improves the company’s productivity.
x Give employees some control in how the workspace should look by letting 
them pick the color, allowing them to personally decorate their section of the 
workspace, or inviting them to bring in their pets.
Source::S^^E
2EVGL7IXLMRO]SYVSǽGIHIWMKR)IWMKRMRKEQSVIIǺIGXMZI[SVOWTEGI Entrepreneur. Retrieved and adapted from www.entrepreneur 
.com/article/226034
TOOLS FOR PROFESSIONAL EXCELLENCE 2.1
ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
Physical Appearance
Physical appearance—“the way our bodies 
and overall appearance nonverbally com-
municate to others and impact our view of 
ourselves in everyday life” (Ivy & Wahl, 
2014, p. 153)—also plays an important role 
in communication. Making the connection 
between physical appearance and nonver-
bal communication is important for two 
reasons: (1) The way we represent our-
selves and our physical appearance reveal 
a lot about who we are, and (2) the physical 
appearance of other people influences our 
perception of them, how we talk to them, 
how approachable they are, how attractive 
or unattractive we think they are, and so on. Clothing is also a part of our physi-
cal appearance that is often critical to professional situations. Clothing helps you 
convey a sense of professionalism. Clothing and other appearance aspects, termed 
artifacts (e.g., jewelry, tattoos, piercings, makeup, cologne, eyeglasses), send non-
verbal messages and help others form perceptions of us, both good and bad (Okoro 
& Washington, 2011; Roach, 1997). The nonverbal message sent by your clothing is 
a powerful part of professional excellence. Appearance is extremely important in 
our society. In fact, according to Armour (2005), employers also agree that physi-
cal appearance matters. An intranet software firm in the Northeast requires formal 
business attire on the job. Men must wear ties, cannot have beards, and cannot wear 
their hair past shoulder length. “Clients like to see a workforce that looks conserva-
tive,” says the chief operating officer. Although the criteria for what is acceptable in 
each environment might vary, physical appearance undoubtedly can affect one’s 
perceived professional excellence.
Body Movement
Kinesics is a general term for the study of human movement, gestures, and pos-
ture (Birdwhistell, 1970; Foley & Gentile, 2010; Ivy & Wahl, 2014). Kinesics provides 
valuable information about a person to others. Have you ever heard someone make 
reference to how a certain person carries himself or herself? Have you ever talked 
about a person who has a certain presence in the room? Perhaps you have said, 
“He/she walks like a leader.” Some people carry themselves in ways that convey 
pride and confidence, while others have poor posture and seem to lack confidence. 
Ekman and Friesen (1969b) classified movement and gestures according to how 
they function in human interaction. The five categories of kinesics are emblems, 
illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adapters.
Emblems are specific, widely understood meanings in a given culture that can 
actually substitute for a word or phrase. An example of this would be placing your 
pointer finger in front of your lips to indicate to someone to be quiet. Illustrators are 
gestures that complement, enhance, or substitute for the verbal message. If you were 
describing the length of the biggest fish you ever caught, you might use your hands 
to illustrate the size. Or when you are giving directions, you might point to show 
which way to go. Affect displays are facial expressions and gestures that display 
emotion. A smile can be an affect display for happiness, while a scowl can display 
frustration. Regulators are gestures used to control the turn-taking in conversations. 
The way we represent 
ourselves and our 
physical appearance 
reveal a lot about who 
we are. The nonverbal 
message sent by your 
clothing is a powerful 
part of professional 
excellence.
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CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
For example, you might make a hand motion to encourage someone or raise your 
own hand to get a turn at speaking. When we are eager to speak, we typically make 
eye contact, raise our eyebrows, open our mouths, take in a breath, and lean forward 
slightly. We do the opposite if we do not want to answer. Head nods, vocal expres-
sions (such as um), facial expressions, body postures, and eye contact can be seen as 
connectors that keep the conversation together and make it coherent. When these 
sorts of nonverbal cues are absent from a conversation, it might trigger a negative 
reaction, and we could come to believe that our conversational partner is not listen-
ing at all. Adapters are gestures we use to release tension. Playing with your hands, 
poking, picking, fidgeting, scratching, and interacting nonverbally with your envi-
ronment are all adapters that reveal your attempts to regulate situations and to make 
yourself feel more at ease and able to function effectively. Adapters can alert us that 
another person is uncomfortable in some way (Ekman & Friesen, 1969b).
Facial Behavior
Facial expressions (including the study of eye behavior, called oculesics) are also 
critical codes that have been studied by nonverbal communication scholars (Ivy 
& Wahl, 2014). The face can be considered a gallery for our emotional displays 
(Gosselin, Gilles, & Dore, 1995). What does another person’s face tell you about him 
or her? What emotion is she expressing? How is he feeling? Are your coworkers sur-
prised to see you? Did your colleagues find your presentation to be entertaining, or 
were they disappointed? Your face and eye behavior play a huge role in the messages 
you send in business and professional contexts.
It is important not only to have a basic understanding of the emotions com-
municated by the face but also to be aware of how we manage our faces in daily 
interactions. Social norms and communication expectations in our culture set the 
rules for what kinds of emotional expressions are appropriate in certain situations. 
To Tweet or Not to Tweet
As you read the passage below, consider what 
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in this situation.
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members of the digital media team outline new 
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ryan immediately logs on to his personal twitter 
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the new hashtags. later that day, ryan receives 
an email from the head of the digital media team, 
reprimanding him for using a personal social 
media account while on the job.
Questions to Consider
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meeting? Why or why not?
 to promote the company, what other 
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used instead of his personal twitter account?
 When, if ever, is it acceptable to use a personal 
social media account while on the job?
 if you were the head of the digital media team, 
how would you handle ryan’s situation?
YOUR COMMUNICATION INTERACTION
ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
Facial management techniques are categories of behavior studied by Ekman and 
Friesen (1969a, 1969b) that determine the appropriate facial response for a given 
situation. The four most common techniques are neutralization, masking, intensifi-
cation, and deintensification.
The process of using facial expressions to erase how we really feel is called neu-
tralization. People who neutralize their facial expressions are often referred to as 
having a poker face. Masking means hiding an expression connected to a felt emo-
tion and replacing it with an expression more appropriate to the situation. If we use 
an expression that exaggerates how we feel about something, it is called intensifi-
cation. By contrast, if we reduce the intensity of our facial expression connected to 
a certain emotion, it is called deintensification.
A significant part of facial expressions involves use of the eyes. About 80% of 
the information in our everyday surroundings is taken in visually (Morris, 1985). 
Kleinke (1986) purports that eye contact and gaze functions provide information, 
regulate interaction, express intimacy, exercise social norms, and facilitate personal, 
situational, and relational goals. Evasive glances and limited-duration eye contact 
on the part of a communicator tend to reduce compliance with requests (Gueguen & 
Jacob, 2002). What can people tell about you by looking into your eyes?
Touch
Touch, also called haptics in nonverbal research, “is the most powerful form of non-
verbal communication; it’s also the most misunderstood and has the potential for 
severely negative consequences if not enacted appropriately” (Ivy & Wahl, 2014, 
p. 49). Several different systems for categorizing touch have been developed to help 
us better understand this complex code of nonverbal communication. One of the 
best means of classifying touch behavior was developed by Heslin (1974). The first, 
functional/professional touch, serves a specific function. These touches typically 
take place within the context of a professional relationship and are low in intimacy. 
An example would be the essence of greeting rituals in business situations, the pro-
fessional handshake (Hlemstra, 1999). The handshake is critical to making a good 
first impression as a professional. Think about what you look for in a handshake. 
What does a professional handshake feel like?
Social/polite touch is connected to cultural norms, such as hugs or pats on the 
back. Once again, these touches convey relatively low intimacy within a relation-
ship, whereas friendship/warmth touch is the type people use to show their pla-
tonic affection toward each other. Hugs and kisses on the cheek might be exchanged 
between two close friends, for example. Love/intimacy touch, by contrast, is highly 
personal and intimate. People communicate strong feelings of affection toward 
each other with these kinds of touches; in this case, hugs may last longer, and kisses 
may be on the lips. The last category involves sexual arousal. These touches are 
extremely intimate.
FORMING RELATIONSHIPS WITH VERBAL 
AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Developing interpersonal, verbal, and nonverbal communication skills requires 
you to differentiate between the content and relational layers of messages. As 
you communicate with other people, your messages have two layers (Dillard, 
Solomon, & Palmer, 1999; Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967). The first is the 
content layer. The content layer consists of the “information being explicitly 
CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
discussed” (Adler & Proctor, 2007, p. 16). The content layer may include descriptive 
information such as the time of a meeting, a project due date, or the names of the 
coworkers assigned to a team. You exchange content with others to function and 
retrieve basic information.
The second layer is relational. The relational layer reveals “how you feel about 
the other person; whether you like or dislike the other person, feel in control or sub-
ordinate, feel comfortable or anxious, and so on” (Adler & Proctor, 2007, p. 16). The 
relational layer may be communicated by your choice of words. For example, an 
executive may call her employees by their first names, while the employees are 
required to refer to the executive as Mrs. Villarreal. The difference in formality of 
names signifies a difference in control. The relational level can also be communi-
cated nonverbally through tone of voice, use of space, and eye contact.
For example, Jason is really nervous about making a deadline, but he can’t finish 
until Rachel completes the financial section of the project. Jason could ask Rachel, 
“What time will you be done with financials?” to retrieve a specific time reference, 
such as “Sometime this evening.” These words reflect the content layer. If Jason 
wants to send the message that he’s annoyed with Rachel, he could add a negative 
tone: “What time will you be done with financials?” If Jason is indeed annoyed, 
then he has effectively communicated both the content and relational layers of his 
message. However, if Jason did not intend to express annoyance, then his message 
is ineffective on the relational level.
There are communicators out there who do not pay attention to the relational 
layer of their messages. As a result, they don’t realize how they’re coming across 
to others. To achieve professional excellence, you must think beyond the content 
layer of your messages and also assess the relational layer. This can be supported 
by using the KEYS process.
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication  
and Their Impact on Professions
In this chapter, we have explored verbal and nonverbal communication—why they 
are important, their definitions, their principles, and their components. As you 
Skills for Observing Nonverbal Communication
Skill Strategy Application
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ƲƲPART IƲbeGinninG CommuniCation PrinCiPleS
consider your professional goals, think 
about how you will use verbal and non-
verbal communication to succeed in your 
career. We have included the following 
examples of the importance of verbal and 
nonverbal communication in a variety of 
industries. Even if your desired profession 
is not listed in the sections below, know 
that developing your professional excel-
lence and communication competence is 
invaluable no matter what path you may 
take in life.
Customer Service and Sales
Recall the importance of proxemics, or 
the impact of space on communication. 
Manning and Reece (1989) found that success in productivity and sales was linked 
to the distance between sales representatives and prospects, salesperson posture, 
handshake techniques, facial expressions, arm movements, hand movements, and 
placement of the legs and feet. Those sales representatives who rely primarily on 
the spoken word to communicate with prospects may be neglecting an important 
tool for conveying their ideas. In addition, Leigh and Summers (2002) conducted 
an investigation that examined the effectiveness of nonverbal communication in a 
sales context. Using videotaped presentations, they found that nonverbal cues (eye 
gaze, speech hesitations, gestures, clothing, and posture) influenced the experimen-
tal buyers’ perceptions of the sales representative and their evaluation of the sales 
presentation.
Journalism and television broadcasting
Those in the public eye must demonstrate effective nonverbal and verbal commu-
nication. How many times have you seen a clip of an on-camera flub being played 
over and over again on YouTube or the local news? In the opinion of some scholars, 
as well as television commentators, arrogant body language on the part of many 
journalists in the United States has led to low public respect and esteem for them 
(Lehrer, 1998).
Public Service
Individuals who work in environments such as libraries or government offices (e.g., 
Department of Motor Vehicles, utility companies) are sometimes criticized for their 
communication and viewed as distant and unhelpful. Evidence indicates that indi-
viduals who are trained in nonverbal communication can replace negative percep-
tions of themselves with positive ones (Sampson, 1995).
Hospitality management
Customer service is especially important in the hotel and restaurant industries. 
A number of hotel and restaurant managers have improved their organizations’ 
image among guests by providing client services employees (e.g., hosts, servers, 
The handshake is 
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What are some of the 
qualities you notice in 
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CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
desk clerks, bellhops) with training in 
verbal and nonverbal communication 
(Jafari & Way, 1994). In restaurants, eye 
contact, facial expression, body position, 
and posture of the staff, including servers 
and cashiers, affect how customers rate 
the value of the service (W. Martin, 1986).
medical Professions
Many people can probably share a story 
about an unpleasant experience at the 
doctor’s office. As physicians compete 
to attract and retain a strong client base, 
their services can be interpreted positively 
by potential patients through correct body 
language on the part of the physicians and their employees. Patients often choose 
a physician based on their perceived image of the doctor, as revealed by verbal and 
nonverbal communications (Hill & Garner, 1991).
teaching Professions
There is evidence that the nonverbal communication of teachers influences the 
evaluation direction (positive or negative) and level of performance they receive 
from their students (Babad, Avni-Babad, 
& Rosenthal, 2003). Consider the differ-
ent teaching and communication styles of 
your current professors. What do you find 
are the common communication traits of 
the professors you enjoy most?
legal Professions
A study has indicated that lawyers can 
project a favorable impression of them-
selves and their firms for prospective cli-
ents through sustained eye contact and 
other forms of body language, such as an 
erect but relaxed sitting position and close 
proximity to the clients (Clarke, 1989).
accounting and Finance
In the same vein as lawyers, accountants can benefit through the technique of main-
tained and appropriate eye contact, good posture, and close proximity to clients 
(Pickholz & Zimmerman, 2002).
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Managers in both business and not-for-profit organizations can more effectively 
convey ideas to their employees through correct use of nonverbal communi-
cation (Hancock, 1999). Further, job evaluations of employees by their super-
visors have been found to correlate with smiling, gaze, hand movement, and 
Television shows like 
ABC’s Grey’s Anatomy 
can shape our general 
perception of various 
professional roles. 
In your view, do you 
think the verbal 
and communication 
skills (or a lack of 
them) portrayed by 
characters in television 
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our expectations of 
medical as well as other 
professionals?
Retail companies 
compete to provide 
the best products 
and service to their 
customers. What does 
good customer service 
look and sound like?
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body orientation (DeGroot & Motowidlo, 1999). In a similar vein, managers can 
effectively convey impressions of empathy and power through body language 
(Gabbott & Hogg, 2000).
KEYS TO EXCELLENCE IN VERBAL  
AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
In the opening of this chapter, we discussed the ways verbal and nonverbal communication 
can be conveyed in different communication contexts. Do you believe that this also affects 
your business communication? Think about how using the KEYS strategies can positively 
affect your nonverbal communication with others. The first step, know yourself, asks you to 
inventory the types of nonverbal cues you display to others. This can be difficult, but try to 
be aware even of the small, unconscious nonverbal cues you create. Sometimes the worst 
nonverbal cues we display are the ones we are not even aware of making.
The next step, evaluate the professional context, requires that you assess what 
nonverbal signals are considered acceptable in your workplace. Are your meetings 
informal, or is there a set decorum on how people interact? Notice how both your 
coworkers and superiors convey nonverbal cues during workplace interactions, and 
gauge how your nonverbal cues line up with those of others in your company.
The third step, your communication interaction, involves taking an immedi-
ate reflexive inventory of both your nonverbal communication and your partner’s. 
How do you react to your partner’s nonverbal signals? How does he or she react to 
yours? Think about what sets you at ease when communicating with others, and try 
to accomplish the same goal when talking with customers, employees, or superiors. 
The more open people feel when talking with you, the more likely they are to dis-
close information more honestly and comfortably.
The final task, step back and reflect, requires you to analyze your communica-
tion after the interaction has ended. Did you walk away feeling satisfied with your 
nonverbal communication? Did your communication partner seem at ease when 
talking with you? Assess what seemed to be 
the most effective nonverbal cues and which 
ones appeared to create a negative perception.
Much like the relationships between tra-
ditional and new media, new venues for busi-
ness communication can help or hinder your 
professional career. Remember that nonver-
bal communication does take place in digital 
contexts, and learn how to use nonverbal cues 
appropriately. This can lead to better (and more 
honest) communication and allow you to practice 
professional excellence in the workplace.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Know yourself
Evaluate the professional context
Your communication interaction
Step back and reflect
CHAPTER 2ƲVerbal and nonVerbal CommuniCationƲƲ
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y the relational layer reveals “how you feel about the other person; whether you like or 
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Discuss examples of how verbal and nonverbal communication are related:
y Some communicators do not pay attention to the relational layer of their messages. as 
a result, they don’t realize how they’re coming across to others. to achieve professional 
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Apply the KEYS approach to conduct yourself with professional excellence through verbal 
and nonverbal communication in the workplace:
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nonverbal cues you create. Sometimes the worst nonverbal cues we display are the ones 
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y 8LIWIGSRHWXITIZEPYEXIXLITVSJIWWMSREPGSRXI\XVIUYMVIWXLEX]SYEWWIWW[LEX
nonverbal signals are considered acceptable in your workplace. are your meetings 
informal, or is there a set decorum for how people interact? notice how both your 
coworkers and superiors convey nonverbal cues during workplace interactions, and 
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of both your nonverbal communication and your partner’s. think about what sets you at ease 
when communicating with others, and try to accomplish the same goal when talking with 
customers, employees, or superiors. the more open people feel when talking with you, the 
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communication? did your communication partner seem at ease when talking with you? 
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 Visit a website that defines internet slang and/or emojis (e.g., internetSlang.com, 
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previously unfamiliar with.
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